Chivalry

When first used, the term "chivalry" meant horsemanship. The warrior elite of
the Middle Ages distinguished themselves from the peasants and clergy and each
other by their skill as horsemen and warriors. Fast and strong horses, beautiful
and efficient weapons, and well-made armor were the status symbols of the day.

By the twelfth century, chivalry had come to mean an entire way of life. The
basic rules of the chivalric code were the following:

*  Protect women and the weak.
*  Champion justice against injustice and evil.
*  Love the homeland.
*  Defend the Church, even at the risk of death.

In practice, knights and aristocrats ignored the code of chivalry when it suited
them. Feuds between nobles and fights over land took precedent over any code.
The Germanic tribal custom that called for a chieftain's property to be split
among his sons, rather than pass to the eldest, often triggered wars among
brothers for the spoils. An example of this was the conflict between
Charlemagne's grandsons. The Middle Ages were plagued with such civil wars in
which the big losers were usually the peasants.

In the late Middle Ages, kings created orders of chivalry, which were exclusive
organizations of high-ranking knights that swore allegiance to their king and
each other. Becoming a member of chivalric order was extremely prestigious,
marking a man as one of the most important of the realm. In 1347 during the
Hundred Years War, Edward III of England founded the Order of the Garter, still
in existence today. This order consisted of the 25 highest-ranking knights of
England and was founded to ensure their loyalty to the king and dedication to
victory in the war.

The Order of the Golden Fleece was established by Philip the Good of Burgundy in
1430 and became the richest and most powerful order in Europe. Louis XI of
France established the Order of St. Michael to control his most important
nobles. The Orders of Calatrava, Santiago, and Alcantara were founded to drive
the Moors out of Spain. They were united under Ferdinand of Aragon, whose
marriage to Isabella of Castile set the foundation for a single Spanish kingdom.
He eventually became master of the three orders, although they remained
separate.

Becoming a Knight

At the age of 7 or 8, boys of the noble class were sent to live with a great
lord as a page. Pages learned basic social skills from the women of the lord's
household and began basic training in the use of weapons and horsemanship.
Around the age of 14 the youth became a squire, a knight in training. Squires
were assigned to a knight who continued the youth's education. The squire was a
general companion and servant to the knight. The duties of the squire included
polishing armor and weapons (prone to rust), helping his knight dress and
undress, looking after his belongings, and even sleeping across his doorway as a
guard.

At tournaments and in battle, the squire assisted his knight as needed. He
brought up replacement weapons and horses, treated wounds, brought a wounded
knight out of danger, or made sure of a decent burial if needed. In many cases
the squire went into battle with his knight and fought at his side. A knight
avoided fighting a squire on the other side, if possible, seeking instead a
knight of rank similar to or higher than his own. Squires, on the other hand,
sought to engage enemy knights, seeking to gain glory by killing or capturing an
enemy knight of high rank.

In addition to martial training, squires built up their strength through games,
learned to at least read, if not write, and studied music, dancing, and singing.

By the age of 21, a squire was eligible to become a knight. Suitable candidates
were "knighted" by a lord or other knight of high standing. The ceremony for
becoming a knight was simple at first, usually being "dubbed" on the shoulder
with a sword and then buckling on a sword belt. The ceremony grew more elaborate
and the Church added to the rite. Candidates bathed, cut their hair close, and
stayed up all night in a vigil of prayer. In the morning the candidate received
the sword and spurs of a knight.

Knighthood was usually attainable only for those who possessed the land or
income necessary to meet the responsibilities of the rank. Important lords and
bishops could support a sizable contingent of knights, however, and many found
employment in these circumstances. Squires who fought particularly well might
also gain the recognition of a great lord during battle and be knighted on the
field.

Tournaments

Mock battles between knights, called tournaments, began in the tenth century and
were immediately condemned by the second Council of Letrán, under Pope
Innocentius II, and the kings of Europe who objected to the injuries and deaths
of knights in what they considered frivolous activity. Tournaments flourished,
however, and became an integral part of a knight's life.

Tournaments began as simple contests between individual knights but grew more
elaborate through the centuries. They became important social events that would
attract patrons and contestants from great distances. Special lists (tournament
grounds) were erected with stands for spectators and pavilions for combatants.
Knights continued to compete as individuals but also in teams. They dueled
against each other using a variety of weapons and held mock mêlée battles with
many knights on a side. Jousts, or tilts, involving two charging knights
fighting with lances, became the premier event. Knights competed like modern-day
athletes for prizes, prestige, and the eyes of the ladies who filled the stands.

So many men were being killed in tournaments by the thirteenth century, that
leaders, including the pope, became alarmed. Sixty knights died in a 1240
tournament held in Cologne, for example. The pope wanted as many knights as
possible to fight on the Crusades in the Holy Land, rather than be killed in
tournaments. Weapons were blunted and rules attempted to reduce the incidence of
injury, but serious and fatal injuries occurred. Henry II of France was mortally
wounded, for example, in a joust at a tournament held to celebrate his
daughter's wedding.

Challenges were usually issued for a friendly contest, but grudges between two
enemies might be settled in a fight to the death. Tournament losers were
captured and paid a ransom to the victors in horses, weapons, and armor to
obtain their release. Heralds kept track of tournament records, like modern
baseball box scores. A low-ranking knight could amass wealth through prizes and
attract a wealthy wife.

Military Orders

During the Crusades military orders of knights were created to support the
Christian goals of the movement. They became the fiercest of the Crusaders and
the most hated enemies of the Arabs. These orders carried on after the Crusades
in Palestine ended in failure.

The first of these orders were the Knights of the Temple, or the Templars,
founded in 1108 to protect the Holy Sepulcher in Jerusalem. The Templars wore a
white surcoat supplanted with a red cross and took the same vows as a
Benedictine monk-poverty, chastity, and obedience. The Templars were among the
bravest defenders of the Holy Land. They were the last Crusaders to leave the
Holy Land. In the following years they grew wealthy from donations and by
lending money at interest, attracting the envy and distrust of kings. In 1307
King Philip IV of France accused them of many crimes, including heresy, arrested
them, and confiscated their lands. Other European leaders followed his lead and
the Templars were destroyed.

The Knights of St. John of Jerusalem, or the Hospitallers, were set up
originally to tend to sick and poor pilgrims visiting the Holy Sepulcher. They
converted shortly into a military order. They wore a red surcoat with a white
cross and also took the vows of St. Benedict. The Hospitallers set a high
standard and did not allow their order to become rich and indolent. When forced
out of the Holy Land following the surrender of their great castle, the Krak des
Chevaliers, they retreated to the island of Rhodes, which they defended for many
years. Driven from Rhodes by the Turks they took up residence on Malta.

The third great military order was the Teutonic Knights, founded in 1190 to
protect German pilgrims traveling to the Holy Land. Before the end of the
Crusades they had turned their efforts toward converting the heathens in Prussia
and in the Baltic States.

Heraldry

To distinguish knights on the battlefield, a system of badges called heraldry
was developed. A special badge was designed for each nobleman to be shown on his
shield, surcoat, flags, and seal. A surcoat decorated with a knight's badge
became known as a coat-of-arms and this term came to describe the badges
themselves. An independent organization known as the College of Heralds designed
the individual badges and ensured that each was unique. Badges were recorded by
the heralds in special books under their care.

Coats-of-arms were handed down from one generation to the next and would be
modified by marriage. Certain designs were reserved for royalty in different
countries. By the late Middle Ages towns, guilds, and even prominent nonnoble
townsmen were granted coats-of-arms.

On the battlefield, combatants used coats-of-arms to distinguish friend and foe
and to choose a worthy opponent in a mêlée. Heralds made lists of knights about
to fight based on their badges. Heralds were also considered neutrals and would
act as intermediaries between two armies. In this manner they might pass
messages between the defenders of a castle or town and its besiegers. After a
battle, heralds identified the dead by their coats-of-arms.